An
Introduction to the Abhidharma
Dr.
Peter Della Santina
In
Chapters 30 through 41, I will discuss the philosophical and psychological
aspects of Buddhism presented in the seven books of the Abhidharma
Pitaka of the Pali canon. I will not look in great
detail at the lists of factors, or dharmas, found in many competent books on
the Abhidharma. Instead, my objectives here are
three: (1) to outline and describe the principal methods and characteristics of
the Abhidharma, (2) to relate the Abhidharma
to what we generally know about the teachings of the Buddha, and (3) to relate Abhidharma philosophy to our situation as lay Buddhists.
Throughout
the history of Buddhism, the Abhidharma has been held
in high esteem. In the books of the Pali canon, for example, the Abhidharma is spoken of in terms of praise and special
regard. There the Abhidharma is the special domain of
the elder monks; novices are even asked not to interrupt the Elders when they
are engaged in a discussion of the Abhidharma. We
also find the Abhidharma recommended only for those
who sincerely strive to realize the goal of Buddhist practice, and that a
knowledge of it is recommended for teachers of the Dharma.
This
traditional regard for the Abhidharma is found not
only in the Theravada tradition but in other major Buddhist traditions as well.
For instance, Kumarajiva, the great Central Asian translator renowned for his
translation of Madhyamaka works into Chinese, is said
to have firmly believed that he must introduce the Abhidharma
to the Chinese if he wished to teach them Buddhist philosophy. In the Tibetan
tradition, also, the Abhidharma is an important part
of monastic training.
Why
is the Abhidharma held in such high esteem? The basic
reason is that a knowledge of the Abhidharma, in the
general sense of understanding the ultimate teaching, is absolutely necessary
to achieve wisdom, which is in turn necessary to achieve freedom. No matter how
long one meditates or how virtuous a life one leads, without insight into the
real nature of things, one cannot achieve freedom.
A
knowledge of the Abhidharma is necessary in order to
apply the insight into impermanence, impersonality, and insubstantiality that
we gain from a reading of the Sutra Pitaka to every
experience of daily life. All of us may glimpse impermanence, impersonality,
and insubstantiality through reading the Sutra Pitaka,
but how often can we apply that momentary intellectual truth to our daily
existence? The system in the Abhidharma teaching
provides a mechanism for doing so. A study of the Abhidharma
is therefore extremely useful for our practice.
Let
us consider the origin and authenticity of the Abhidharma.
The Theravada school holds that the Buddha is the source of the Abhidharma philosophy and was himself the first master of
the Abhidharma because, on the night of his
enlightenment, he penetrated the essence of the Abhidharma.
According to a traditional account, the Buddha also spent the fourth week after
his enlightenment in meditation on the Abhidharma.
This is the week known as 'the House of Gems.' Later in his career, it is said
that the Buddha visited the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, where his mother was,
and taught the Abhidharma to her and the gods. It is
said that when he returned to earth, he passed on the essentials of what he had
taught to Sariputta--hardly a coincidence, since Sariputta was his foremost disciple, renowned for his
wisdom.
Thus it is claimed in
general that it is the Buddha to whom we owe the inspiration of the Abhidharma teaching. This inspiration was passed on to his
disciples who were philosophically gifted, like Sariputta,
and by the effort of these gifted disciples the general outline and contents of
Abhidharma philosophy were established.
Let
us go on to consider the meaning of the term abhidharma.
If we look carefully at the Sutra Pitaka, we find
this term occurring frequently, usually in the general sense of 'meditation
about Dharma,' 'instruction about Dharma,' or 'discussion about Dharma.' In a
more specific sense, abhidharma means 'special
Dharma,' 'higher Dharma,' or 'further Dharma.' Here, of course, we are using
Dharma in the sense of doctrine or teaching, not in the sense of phenomenon or
factor of experience (in which case it would not be capitalized).
There
is an even more technical sense in which the term abhidharma
is used in the Sutra Pitaka, and in this context
dharma no longer means doctrine in general but, rather, phenomenon. This
technical use is associated with another function, that is to make
distinctions. This most technical use of the term abhidharma
has five aspects, or meanings: (a) to define dharmas; (b) to ascertain the
relationship between dharmas; (c) to analyze dharmas; (d) to classify dharmas,
and (e) to arrange dharmas in numerical order. The Buddhist canon is divided
into three collections (literally, 'baskets'): the
Sutra Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka,
and the Abhidharma Pitaka.
The Sutra Pitaka is ordinarily termed the basket of
the discourses, the Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules
covering the monastic community, and the Abhidharma Pitaka is normally referred to as the books of Buddhist
philosophy and psychology. Here I would like to look at the relationship
between the Abhidharma Pitaka
and the Sutra Pitaka. There is a great deal of Abhidharmic material in the Sutra Pitaka.
Remember the technical definition of abhidharma that
we considered a moment ago. Keeping that in mind, we find in the Sutra Pitaka a number of discourses that are Abhidharmic
in character: the Anguttara Nikaya,
which presents an exposition of teachings arranged in numerical order; the Sangiti Sutta and Dasuttara
Sutta, in which Sariputta expounds on items of the
teachings arranged in numerical order; and the Anupada
Sutta, a discourse in which Sariputta analyzes his
meditative experience in Abhidharmic terms.
How,
then, can we arrive at a distinction between the Abhidharma
and the sutras? To do this we need to look at the second meaning of the term abhidharma, namely, its use in the sense of 'higher
doctrine.' In the sutras the Buddha speaks from two points of view. First he speaks of beings, objects, the qualities and
possessions of beings, the world, and the like, and he is often found making
statements such as 'I myself will go to Uruvela.'
Second, the Buddha proclaims in no uncertain terms that there is no 'I' and
that all things are devoid of personality, substance, and so forth. Obviously,
the two standpoints in operation here are the conventional (vohara)
and the ultimate (paramattha). We have everyday
language like 'you' and 'I,' and we also have technical philosophical language
that does not assume personality, objects, and so forth.
This
is the difference between the Sutric contents and the
Abhidharmic contents of the teachings of the Buddha.
By and large, the sutras use the conventional standpoint while the Abhidharma uses the ultimate standpoint. Yet there are
passages in the sutras that describe impermanence, impersonality or
insubstantiality, elements, and aggregates, and hence reflect the ultimate
standpoint. In this context there is also a division of texts into those whose
meaning is explicit and direct, and those whose meaning is implicit and
indirect.
Why
did the Buddha resort to these two standpoints, the conventional and the ultimate?
For the answer we need to look at his excellence as a teacher and skill in
choosing methods of teaching. If the Buddha had spoken to all his audiences
only in terms of impermanence, insubstantiality, elements, and aggregates, I do
not think the Buddhist community would have grown as quickly as it did during
the sixth century B.C.E. At the same time, the Buddha knew that the ultimate
standpoint is indispensable for a profound understanding of the Dharma, so his
teachings do contain specific language for expressing the ultimate standpoint.
-oOo-
[Taken
from Peter Della Santina., The Tree of Enlightenment. (Taiwan:
The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 1997), pp. 271-275].
-oOo-
Sincere thanks to Ti.nh Tue^. for typing this article.